This list is a support resource for bodybuilders and dedicated athletes to share and exchange tips on recipes and cooking and to compare notes on what techniques, tactics, and routines have worked best based on their experiences. Eating well and training smarter are our watchwords. This is an ongoing challenge because goals change, tactics become stale, and success only opens your eyes to new areas of improvement.
Another objective is to sort out the various conflicting facts, claims, rumors, and myths connected with nutrition and bodybuilding folklore. These areas in the past have been dominated by hype, secrecy, and gurus trading on half-truths and jargon. To fight this, the final recourse of this discussion group is to hard science and biology of human nutrition, physiology, and biochemistry. This means that at times technical language will prevail on this list. We hope that you do not find this intimidating. If you do not understand a concept, feel free to ask for clarification. At the same time we expect that you will make an effort to understand what people say and when possible research things.
Bodybuilding and all effective sport conditioning is the successful intersection of muscular exertion, nutrition, and recovery to reach specific goals. Think of it as a loop: training->nutrition->recovery->training.
This resource is gay-friendly and I personally am gay.
Complete Disclaimer: I disclaim all responsibility for anything on the list said by anyone besides myself. Anything I say is purely the opinion of a layman, NOT an expert, so take it as such. I am not responsible for any injuries, malnutrition, scurvy, rickets, palsy, dementia, or fashion errors that you may incur after reading this FAQ or anything on the list. Everything in this document, so far as it goes, is or tries to be accurate to current, provable, scientific fact. You are strongly encouraged to research any areas of interest further. When in doubt consult a licensed medical professional such as an MD or an RD regarding choices that may affect your health.
Copyright notice: The entire contents of this document are Copyright 1997 Paul L. Moses. Redistribution for personal, noncommercial use is permissible, so long as the document is distributed in its entirety, including this notice. Any other use requires an express written request and consent from the listowner. All rights reserved.
Who is this list for? The short answer: natural (nonsteroid) bodybuilders who like to cook. The medium answer: everyone who dedicated enough to a sport to be serious about nutrition. Beyond that, anyone who wants to be here.
What is this list for?
Keep in mind that this discussion requires that you are experienced and knowledgeable about at least one of the following areas: bodybuilding and weight training (at least 3 years experience), or similar experience training in another endurance activity like running, swimming, biking, or others, nutrition, physiology, or low fat cooking. To minimize the load on the mail server, lurkers should read back issues from the web site rather than joining the list itself.
Please do not subscribe unless you intend to contribute and participate.
This not a weight-loss support list.
This is not a beginning fitness list.
We want to hear from everyone who can open the discussion in useful ways -- ways that expand what we know about food, exercise, performance, and recovery.
This list supports meat and dairy consumption. Vegetarian/lacto-ovo, etc bodybuilders are welcome here, but please, no preaching. Protein is a crucial component of bodybuilding diets, and animal sources are extremely high quality for muscle building. It is difficult as it is to get variety in a constructive bodybuilding or sports diet, so ruling out these sources would be too great a constraint. Many vegans can do this successfully, but others would find it impossible. We respect your position and beliefs, but ask that you understand ours. Vegetarian or lacto-ovo recipes are fine, but so are meat based recipes.
On the other hand, LOW FAT is *strongly* encouraged. If you are submitting a recipe that -is- or -may be- more than 30% fat calories, label it as such!
Also, the exact balance of protein and carbohydrates in the diet probably will vary depending on what your goals are at a given time. We want to explore those kinds of questions.
Ketogenic or "high fat" diets are a risky possible short term way to lose bodyfat. They have been discussed extensively here in the past but as more and more evidence became available very troubling possible side effects in the medium and long term came to light. These include morbid obesity, hyperinsulemia, chronic fatigue, immunosuppresion, arteriosclerosis, and others. The risks are not universal but they are significant. Further, ketogenic diets are complex to perform correctly and a substantial amount of list activity was diverted from food discussion into ketogenic dieter support. The novelty and short-term effects of these diets should not obscure the fundamental fact that they are unproven in the longer term. A ketogenic diet, if done at all, should never be continued for any period longer than absolutely necessary.
The list tries to be an open forum for all points of view, but this subject became pathological and now is off topic. Certain individuals overtly promoted commercial products with their postings, despite repeated requests to the contrary. Others ridiculed contrary views using flawed or deliberately vague scientific rhetoric. And the volume of mail on support questions was extensive. The overall effect was to give newcomers the impression that this was a valid, credible option for meal planning, which is far from reality. It provides no unique benefits, is difficult to implement and perform, and carries substantial unknowns and risks. Virtually everyone can achieve similar losses of bodyfat using a common sense diet with real food and exercise.
Recreational use of steroids is illegal. Please do not argue the point here. Also, remember that using the internet necessarily requires use of the telephone system, and so any discussion about obtaining drugs such as steroids illegally on the internet involves an "instrumentality of interstate commerce" and thus kicks in FEDERAL drug laws. These include some pretty broad ones about conspiracy, with some pretty heinous consequences. Further, I personally don't like the mentality of drug abuse and have no desire to support it.
Bottom line: Don't use this list to look for ways to break or bend the law.
This list is not and will not be a marketing tool for some bozo selling AMWAY or Skinny Dip or whatever junk it is. Don't send mail advertising your miracle product here, don't send mail telling us about the great deal you can provide on supplements, etc. If you have done mail order with some place and had good results, ok, pass along the info if you want. Also if you've got to move and have no room for your stairclimber in the new place, that's ok too.
I'd ask any personal trainers out there to avoid saying things like "I'm in Boston, anyone in the area give me a call at 999-888-9999 for a free consultation". What you SHOULD do is to make a .sig file for yourself with your phone number, fax, whatever contact info you want and to sign all your messages with this so that people CAN get in touch with you if they want.
Also, the flip side consideration -your experience as a a buyer- is important too. If you've been ripped off or had a great experience, tell us about it. (No phony, Weider-like testimonials, please ;)
This list is not here to perpetuate the "magic bullet" theory of bodybuilding nutrition. There is no wonder substance that you can buy (legally) that will turn you into Hercules in six weeks, regardless of whatever other crap you are putting into your body. You need to look at EVERYTHING you eat and make some intelligent choices on that level.
If you have experience with using one or another brand and have something to say about HOW it helped you, or what you used it for (meal replacement, recipe ingredient, etc), that's ok. Unfortunately megabuck advertising budgets have made "supplements" into a focus of bodybuilding rather than a sideline, as they really are in a rational diet. If you are looking for information about a certain brand or product, please try to have specific goals in mind and specific questions to ask, not just a generic "does it work? will it help me get big?" type question.
The Supplement Barter Policy:
Anyone who wants to ask a supplement question must also provide a healthy recipe, preferably one that humans have actually prepared, eaten, and liked. This recipe must be provided at the same time the person asks the supplement question, though you can send them in separate email messages. I reserve the right to deny requests that have really lame recipes, like Jello. No protein shakes, either. There are already a whole bunch of those in the archives.
Bottom line: Real food is always the foundation of a successful athlete's diet. Supplements at best *may* add a slight performance boost, but they will not even do that much if the basics are out of kilter.
Anything you would like to see in the next issue should go to:
trnutr@dgs.dgsys.com
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Please use descriptive subject headings for your messages to the list, not a generic Re: Training-Nutrition #xxx. This is important for a number of reasons. First, it makes the process of assembling each issue a bit easier. Second, it is more informative to other list subscribers reading the issue. Finally, it makes a big difference using the search engine on the back issues.
If you are replying to a post in a previous issue, edit it so that you requote only the relevant material.
We would prefer NOT to see: flame wars, personal attacks, requests for drugs, solicitation for customers, wholesaling or other blatant advertising, supplement questions that rehash advertising claims, other bad things. Especially if you disagree with another poster, please try to keep rebuttals FACTUAL and avoid personalizing the dispute. Everyone makes mistakes, even me. And you. Dialogue, not diatribe.
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If your mail bounces, there are two immediate possibiilities. First, you made a typo in the address. Check it again. Second, there is a problem at dgsys (ie, on the list side of things). If you get a strange unix-like message back and the address is correct, then most likely the system here is experiencing problems. Please resend the message in a day or so. I'm not happy about that, but it's the only option since I have no control over the mail server.
If you submit a post to the list and see strange characters in it when the issue comes out, there are several possible problems. An "=" sign replaces a line feed character when non-standard LF's are used, and "=20" replaces a carriage return. Quotation marks of all sorts also mutate, especially if you use smart quotes. Check your email program text settings and try to find a plain text option.
If your text formatting comes out all messed up, your email program is putting more than 80 characters on a line before wrapping. Cut it down to 70 or 80 if you can.
If you're thinking it's been a long time since you've seen an issue of Training-Nutrition, don't worry. Issues come out on an irregular basis, essentially whenever I think there's enough new material for a new issue. So if you haven't seen anything for a while, contribute something to the list. That might be enough to get a new issue out ;) If it's been more than a week or two, send a question to the request address. There may be a problem with your site or the address as read by the list.
Contributions may not appear in the very next issue, depending on total traffic. Subscription requests will be processed when the next issue is sent out. At that time, you will receive the FAQs for the list. Your subscription will then start with the following issue. Unsubscribe requests also will not take effect until the following issue.
I take an active role in putting out each issue. I may edit your letter before sending out to the list. I may indicate such editing by putting in ... where material was removed. Then again, I may not. I may make a comment on what you wrote. I may disagree with a position you have. Don't take it personally. I don't know you, I don't have any reason to be gunning for you, and frankly, I've got better things to do with my time. Chalk it up to a clash of ideas, and forget about it. If you think that I have made an uninformed statement and have a reasonable way to explain what my misconception is, sure, let me know. Send messages like that to trnutreq. Otherwise, don't bother.
I have put a great deal of work into compiling the FAQs for general reference. Please make an effort to read through them. The volume and depth of material in them can be daunting, but they have been designed to be accessible and comprehensive.
Each post to the list is implicitly copyrighted by the original author. Each issue of TN is a new work (of compilation, editing, and formatting of those posts), which is also copyrighted. When you submit material to the list, you are granting me a discretionary right of reuse of that material: the right to edit, publish, not publish, compile, combine with other posts, illustrate, htmlize, and so on as I see fit. I reserve the right to any potential future reuses of this material in all media as well. You still have a copyright on your posts. Public access and availability of TN from the archives does not affect the copyright validity or enforcement. In other words, I do not have to constrain distribution in order to protect my rights or yours.
The Fair Use doctrine allows people to copy copyrighted material for personal, education, critical, or commentary purposes. *But* it requires proper attribution of the source, although it does not necessarily require explicit permission. Web pages are a new medium to the law, but as long as they are personal pages with no commercial purpose or gain, then Fair Use allows people to copy and edit TN material WITH ATTRIBUTION. On the other hand, reuse without attribution, and commercial reuse (of any sort) without permission both are copyright infringement and are legally actionable.
You don't *have* to *ask* me if you can reuse TN material on a brief web page, or in a quick email to a friend, or a letter but you DO have to CREDIT both TN and the original poster. If you are going into great depth and using a large number of issues to create something new, then you do need to ask both me and the people who posted.
How do posters' copyrights work in relation to the TN copyrights? Jane Poster sending in a post to TN is conferring on me a right of discretionary use of her post. Let's say Jane is a prolific poster and decides she has enough material to write her own nutrition book, _Look Back In Indigestion_. She has not surrendered her rights, so she can write the book and not worry about infringement, IF she only quotes herself. If she uses material that OTHER people have sent into the list in response to her posts, then she needs both their consent and mine. If I decide to write a book, then I *should* ask Jane, and probably will, but I don't *have* to, because she consented to my discretionary use from the getgo. Now if Jack Lurker goes and writes a book using Jane's post in TN, he needs both her permission and mine, or else I put on my lawyer hat and go sue his ass, and bring in Jane as a coplaintiff.
If you are not completely bored out of your mind with this subject yet, the Copyright FAQ is at
http://www.cs.ruu.nl/wais/html/na-dir/law/Copyright-FAQ/.html
Although the immediate costs of putting together an issue of Training-Nutrition are fairly low, over time substantial related costs do arise. Reference materials, software, hardware upgrades, and time spent on the digest and web site all add up. As with everything else we keep seeing, there is no free lunch! To recover some of these costs and with the hope of being able to make further investments and improvements in Training-Nutrition as a resource, there is a contribution policy.
In keeping with the shareware philosophy, the cost of Training-Nutrition is a minimum donation of $15 (US) per year. Higher contributions are certainly welcome! Please send checks or money orders to:
Training-Nutrition c/o Paul Moses
1706 North Troy Street #814
Arlington, VA 22201
Checks should be payable to "Paul Moses".
Note: please do not send checks if there is a possibility that they will bounce. Save us both the hassle and bank fees and keep your money to buy groceries. Also please wait until you have been on the list for a month or two before deciding whether or not to contribute. Finally, I make no guarantees about how many issues will come out after you make a donation, the content or relevance to you, or whether the Earth will continue to exist the day after tomorrow. This is a donation, not a subscription fee.
I am willing to consider donations of scientific reference texts, cookbooks, Macintosh hardware or software, invitations and airfare to wild parties, or other various and sundry stuff that might be decent barter. Drop me a note at trnutreq with any such ideas.
I am also considering setting up a sponsorship program, but have not worked out the details. Possibly there would be a Sponsors' Page on the web site where sponsors would be recognized with links to their pages or content. However, to avoid a conflict of interest I think that supplement manufacturers and diet book programs would have to be out of bounds. Anyone else - gyms, supermarkets, magazines, airlines, car manufacturers - should be fine.
A comprehensive reference text on nutrition is _Total Nutrition: The Only Guide You'll Ever Need_ from the Mount Sinai School of Medicine, edited by Victor Herbert, M.D., F.A.C.P. and Genell J. Subak-Sharpe, M.S., St. Martin's Press, New York, 1995. ISBN# 0-312-11386-2
_Nancy Clark's Sports Nutrition Guidebook_ is narrower in focus. Author: Nancy Clark, MS, RS, Leisure Press, Champaign, IL, 1990. ISBN# 0-88011-326-X
_Power Foods_ by Liz Applegate, Ph.D is another solid overview of sports nutrition. Rodale Press, Emmaus, Pennsylvania, 1991. ISBN# 0-87596-21199-X.
_Diet For a Small Planet_ by Frances Moore Lappe, Ballantine Books, 20th Anniversary Edition - September 1991. ISBN 0-345-37366-9.
_Fats That Heal, Fats That Kill: The Complete Guide to Fats, Oils, Cholesterol and Human Health_ by Udo Erasmus. Alive Books, 1993 ISBN: 0920470386
For counting calories, _The Complete Book of Food Counts_ by Corinne T. Netzer is useful. Dell Publishing, New York, 1994. ISBN# 0-440-21271-5.
Bowes & Church's, _Food Values Of Portions Commonly Used_, Sixteenth Edition is another very reliable food count book. Author/Editor Jean A. T. Pennington, J.B. Lippincott Company. ISBN# 0-397-55087-1.
_Textbook of Biochemistry with Clinical Correlations_ 3rd ed., Thomas M. Devlin, editor, Wiley-Liss, 1993. ISBN #0-471-51348-2
_Color Atlas of Physiology_ 4th ed., Despopoulos and Silbernagl, Theime Medical Publ, 1991. ISBN #0-86577-382-3
_The Encyclopedia of Molecular Biology_, Editor Sir John Kendrew. Blackwell Science, Oxford, 1994. ISBN 0-86542-621-X
The journal Nature. URL: http://www.america.nature.com
_Inside Information: Imaging the Human Body_, by William Ewing. Fireside 1996 ISBN 0-684-83108-2. A fantastic book of microphotographs of body structures.
Material in the section on sleep is abstracted (though not copied) from the book _The Enchanted World of Sleep_, by Peretz Lavie, Yale University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-300-06602-3.
Further information about the Glycemic Index is available on the Training Nutrition home page.
The Stretching FAQ contains a detailed explanation of muscular structure and function. The Training Nutrition home page has a link to the Stretching FAQ.
For discussion about weight training, there's the weights list.
Contact weights-request@WeightsNet.com for more info, or visit WeightsNet at http://www.WeightsNet.com
The femuscle mailing list is a discussion group about women and bodybuilding. To join, send email to
majordomo@cybermuscle.com with
subscribe femuscle
in the message body.
Two magazines with some consistently reliable info are HARDGAINER and Natural Bodybuilding and Fitness.
HARDGAINER ($29.95/year, bimonthly)
c/o CS Publishing Ltd, PO Box 390, CY-2151, Nicosia, Cyprus
Natural Bodybuilding and Fitness ($21.50/8 issues, quarterly)
Cheleo Publishing, 350 Fifth Avenue, Suite 3323, NY, NY 10118
There are also several USENET newsgroups devoted to weight training and aerobic exercise issues called misc.fitness.weights, misc.fitness.aerobics, and misc.fitness.misc.
For other food ideas, there's also the EAT-LF list and the fatfree list, both of which are mailing lists strongly influenced by the Ornish and McDougal diet books. Some USENET newsgroups in the alt.food hierarchy can be helpful, too.
Sorry but there is no ftp site for back issues of Training-Nutrition yet.
There IS a web site, where you can find the most current versions of the FAQs, back issues, links to other resources, and even a picture of yours truly. Set your web browsers to:
http://www2.dgsys.com/~trnutr/index.html
Calories are units of energy in foods. Specifically, a calorie is the heat required to raise water temperature 1 degree Celsius.
The energy that is received isn't from the "digestion" of the exact substance (like the carbon or oxygen atoms in glucose). The energy is stored in the bonds that bind the carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen (in the case of protein) atoms. Energy is required to keep these atoms bonded together, and whenever that bond is broken, the energy is released. The body "accepts" and uses this energy, which is how the body gets energy to continue it's everyday functions. If the energy isn't needed, then the body stores it.
- Eric Nix
Carbohydrates are the energy fuel of the body. As their name suggests, carbohydrates are chains of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Through digestion, the body ultimately breaks carbs down into carbon dioxide and water. Carbohydrates take several forms, depending on their structure and complexity. The most basic carbohydrate form is the monosaccaride (literally "one sugar"). Examples are glucose and fructose. Disaccarides are carbohydrate molecules combining two monosaccarides. Sucrose, also known as table sugar, is a disaccharide that consists of one glucose molecule and one fructose molecule. The mono- and di- saccarides are often grouped together under the label "simple carbs". Oligosaccarides are groups of 3 to 10 sugars, but these are indigestible and create gas (this is why beans have negative social consequences). Finally, polysaccharides are groups of ten or more - possibly many more, up to thousands of - sugars. Polysaccharides are commonly called "complex carbs". Starch is the most common form of polysaccharide found in the diet. The bonds between the simple sugars resist digest more strongly in polysaccharides, partially because there are so many more bonds to break and partially because of the nature of the bonds themselves, so starch digestion takes longer than sugar digestion. Breads and potatoes are examples of foods containing starch. Another important polysaccharide is glycogen.
Digestion breaks all carbohydrates down to glucose, a simple sugar which goes into the bloodstream to feed all body tissues, especially the brain. Glucose is burned up by body tissues. Since all carbohydrates end up as glucose in the bloodstream,the most relevant factor would seem to be the rate at which they are released.
The Glycemic Index is a measure of how easily a carbohydrate food breaks down into glucose. A piece of white bread is 100 on the Glycemic Index; higher numbers indicate higher sugar levels and lower numbers indicate that more digestion is required for the body to obtain glucose from the food. The higher the blood sugar increase, the more insulin the body will produce. Insulin is a hormone which transports glucose into cells for use as a fuel - glucose cannot get in as easily by itself. Insulin also transports dietary fat into adipose tissue, and shuts down the reverse process. So a high sugar burst will do two things: cause fat to be deposited more easily, and slow down the burning of existing fat.
Surprisingly, some complex carbohydrates - wheat products in particular- have very high indices compared to simple carbs such as sucrose (table sugar) and lactose (found in milk), and are probably more "fattening" in this respect. In other words, some foods (like bread or potatoes) that contain high amounts of complex carbohydrates can have a greater effect on blood sugar than can foods (like apples) that have few complex carbs and more simple carbs . Of course, a major benefit of complex carbohydrate staples is the presence of dietary fiber and B vitamins, which foods high in simple sugars often lack.
When the body is adequately supplied with glucose, excess glucose is converted to glycogen, a reserve which is easily converted back to glucose. The human body can store about 1600 kcal of glycogen when fully fueled; 1200 kcal in the muscles and 400 kcal in the liver. The total amount of glycogen is approximately the amount of carbohydrate we consume daily (in grams)--400-500 grams. The exact number depends on a person's size. It is thought that all the carbohydrate that we consume goes to replenishing that which is lost every day and, consequently, very little ends up being converted to fat. Muscular glycogen can be used only as fuel for the muscle, but the liver's glycogen can be used to increase blood sugar as needed. The body will store some percentage of any meal as fat - glycogen stores don't have to be full for this to happen. Glucose goes to restore muscle glucogen immediately after exercise, so many people recommend consuming a high carb drink (200-400 calories) within 60 minutes after working out. If you haven't exercised, glucose goes to both muscle and fat. There is also a limit on how fast glucose can be stored as glycogen. If you have more glucose than can be converted to glycogen at one time, it ends up as fat. Hence the reason for 6 or more small meals.
Certain carbohydrates are unusual. Fructose, the predominant simple sugar in fruit, differs from glucose in an important way. When digested, fructose - like glucose - first goes to replenish liver glycogen. The liver uses the enzyme fructokinase to convert fructose to glycogen, and in the average person it can handle about 200 calories of fructose a day. But then,UNlike glucose, surplus fructose is converted to triglyceride (fat) even if muscle glycogen is low. This is the reason that precontest dieting means eliminating fruit, which otherwise is very healthy and a good source of vitamins, trace elements, and fiber.
Fiber is also a carbohydrate, but one that is indigestible and so has no caloric content. (However, some nutritional information panels on foods may include fiber carbs in the total carb figures.) The actual definition of fiber is that it is any polysaccharide that is indigestible, though in practice it is mostly cellulose, plant cell walls. Fiber is important in the diet, as it seems to play a role in reducing cholesterol, regulating blood sugar, maintaining regularity, seems to lower risk of heart disease, bowel disorders including cancer, and is beneficial for diabetics. Vegetables and grain products are good sources for dietary fiber.
Lactose is milk sugar, a disaccaride of glucose and galactose. The enzyme lactase breaks lactose down into its component sugars, which the body then burns. A person who is "lactose intolerant" simply consumes more lactose than he or she can process. As with the indigestible oligosaccharides in beans, the excess lactose passes through the digestive tract unabsorbed, and the normal digestive tract bacteria ferment it, producing gas and possibly discomfort or embarassment. There are two solutions for lactose intolerance: either reduce consumption of dairy products, or take lactase supplements, which are available in most drugstores. Also, yogurt contains bacteria which help the body digest lactose.
Fat is a highly energy dense substance which plays many roles in the body. Fats are divided into saturated or unsaturated fats.
Chemistry here...
Fats are naturally occuring esters of long-chain (twelve to twenty carbons) carboxylic acids and triol glycerol. In other words, three fatty acids are joined together by a glycerol backbone, hence the name triglyceride for fat. The structural formula:
O
//
H O - C - R
\ /
C-H O
H | //
> C - O - C - R'
H |
C - O - C - R''
/ \ \\
H H O
The long-chain carboxylic acids can be saturated or unsaturated. A fat is called saturated if the carboxylic acids are saturated. Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between the carbons and each carbon is also bonded to two hydrogens. Unsaturated fatty acids have one (monounsaturated) or more (polyunsaturated) double bonds.
-R (-R' and -R'') in the structural formula above.
H H H H H H H H H H
| | | | | | | | | |
-C-C-C-C-C-C-H -C-C-C=C-C-C-H
| | | | | | | | | | | |
H H H H H H H H H H H H
saturated (mono) unsaturated
On a side note:
In organic chemistry, lipid is a term that has been used to describe natural substances which are soluble in hydrocarbons and insoluble in water (not only fats but waxes, natural hydrocarbons). Biochemists reserve
the term for natural compounds that yield fatty acids upon hydrolysis.
...end chemistry.
The reason why unsaturated is "healthier" is that because it has double bonds. The charge of the atoms is different around the molecule and therefore it acts differently with other unsaturated molecules. It's also harder to pack unsaturated fats in your arteries because of the distribution of charge, whereas saturated molecules are easier to pack, because the charge is evenly distributed. Think of it like making a brick wall. Saturated fats are cuboidal bricks, easy to fit with each other, whereas unsaturated fats are irregular jagged bricks, hard to fit. Reducing saturated fats in the diet as a permanent change means that long term risk of arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries due to heavy fat deposition) will be lower.
You may have seen the term "partially hydrogenated" or "hydrogenated" vegetable oil in a list of ingredients of pre-packaged food. This is also known as the dreaded "trans" fatty acid. Hydrogenation is just that - the addition of hydrogen atoms to a fat solution in order to change its chemical properties. Normally, unsaturated fats are curved (the "cis" configuration) because there is an asymmetric distribution of hydrogen atoms on the two sides of the carbon chain, which causes it to bend. This results in fat staying liquid at room temperatures. Turning it into a trans fat by hydrogenation straightens it out and allows it to become solid at ordinary temperatures. This new molecule may have the formula of a mono or poly- unsaturated fat, but its structure is so different that its function changes dramatically. It is essentially a saturated fat to the body.
The body uses fat in many important ways.
Structurally, fat has both a protective function and a reserve function. Essential fat insulates the body and surrounds the organs and nervous pathways like a shield or buffer. To the extent a person has more fat, the rest works as a reserve - not only for energy but also for fat soluble vitamins and other substances, including certain drugs. The body tends to store excess fat in adipose tissue, specialized cells that have large vacuoles (empty spaces) that work as receptacles for fat molecules. The body forms adipose tissue up to the age of twenty or so, and after that, it no longer does. So childhood obesity can have lifelong repercussions. On the other hand, the good news about fat is that the body tends to store it rather than form it. For a given amount of excess calories, more will be stored as fat *if it comes from dietary fat* in the first place; excess calories from carbs or protein *require energy* to be converted to fat, so ultimately less fat is generated from those sources.
Dietary fat does fulfill a key role. As with amino acids, certain fatty acids are essential, meaning that the body cannot synthesize them out of raw materials. These Essential Fatty Acids (EFAs) must come from dietary fat. There are two EFAs: linoleic acid (LA) and alpha-linoleic acid (LNA). LA is an omega-6 fatty acid, and LNA is an omega-3 fatty acid. Plant oils such as sunflower or soybean are the best sources for EFAs.
There are numerous other omega-3 fatty acids which are not essential, but scientists and nutritionists believe that dietary omega-3 fatty acids have a variety of beneficial effects because they substitute for more harmful fatty acids in biochemical reactions and produce less damaging byproducts. Seafood and especially fish are the main source of omega-3 fatty acids. The *kind* of fat in your diet makes a big difference. Keep your diet below 30% Calories From Fat (CFF), include seafood on a regular basis, and avoid saturated and trans fats as much as possible.
Eating a diet low in fat (and especially saturated fat) is also important because the majority of cholesterol in a person's body is produced from the amount of saturated fat that he or she consumes. Cholesterol is another type of lipid, used in building cell membranes, the outer portion of nerve fibers, and sex and adrenal hormones. Digested globules of saturated fat pass from the small intestine, into the bloodstream, and eventually reach the liver, which breaks them down into the low density lipoprotein (lDL) form of cholesterol. LDL cholesterol circulates through the bloodstream and carries cholesterol to cells. This is the"bad"form of cholesterol that physicians often concentrate on controlling. High levels of saturated fat mean high levels of lDL cholesterol. If it's in overabundance, it can become dangerous though there is presently some dispute over exactly how harmful high cholesterol levels are. On the other side of the equation, hDL is considered the "good" cholesterol and is required by the body. hDL seems to perform the reverse function, carrying cholesterol out of cells and then out of the body. Doctors and scientists believe genetics set cholesterol levels to some extent, but monitoring your diet and exercise both do reduce levels of cholesterol.
Another major function of fat is to serve in energy reactions.
Fatty acid is fuel for muscle mitochondria. Fat taken out of adipose tissue gets broken down to fatty acids, which are burned in muscle cells as fuel. This process is ongoing, though its extent varies. The body burns fat primarily in the periods between meals, and during endurance aerobic activity. You may have heard that you need to exercise for "at least twenty minutes" before the body exhausts its glycogen reserves and starts burning fat as a fuel. This is a myth. It would be impossible for the body to do anything if there was no glycogen. The 20 minute standard is arbitrary. The body burns both glucose and fat all the time, but the ratio between these depends on what the individual has eaten, what he/she is doing, and his or her individual biochemisty.
When the body truly is experiencing a severe glucose shortage, fat will be broken into ketone bodies which serve as a functional substitute for glucose - especially in the brain. The body uses this as an emergency fallback reserve to protect the brain. This is why diabetics will lapse into a coma; their bodies have run out of usable glucose *and* ketones and the system has "crashed". Note that this is due to insufficient insulin levels; there may be plenty of sugar that simply is not being used.
It is well known and accepted that excess dietary and body fat has drastic negative consequences - high blood pressure, heart disease, and diabetes being the most recognized. Fat is almost universally dreaded and carries powerful social and psychological stigmas. BUT we must remember that it has an irreplaceable role in the body. While it is important to keep dietary fat below 30% CFF, too little fat can be detrimental as well, and the threshold may be around 20% CFF. Too little dietary fat can lead to deficiency in vitamins A, D, E, and K. Dry skin, brittle hair and spots are initial signs and more serious symptoms (such as : eczema, psoriasis, slow healing of wounds, hair loss) may follow if there is an imbalance. The body converts dietary fatty acids into hormone bases and therefore a very low fat diet will alter the body`s hormone balance. Also, extremely low bodyfat levels may reduce the body's ability to fight disease and recover. Women may experience irregularities with the menstrual cycle and bone density. It is extremely important to consult a physician if such problems occur. Some professional bodybuilders have in fact DIED after heavy pre-contest dieting and dehydration to achieve the "ripped" look for competition. So it's no joke: you need fat. Don't allow tunnel vision and ego to blind you to warning signs.
Protein plays more of a structural role in the body. Proteins are extremely long chain molecules, composed of amino acids. If a protein is like a train, amino acids are the boxcars. There are twenty amino acids, which can be recombined into an infinite number of proteins. The body can produce certain amino acids on its own, but not all. The ones it cannot produce must come in via the diet, and are called Essential Amino Acids (EAAs). (There are nine EAAs: isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, valine, and histidine. The eleven nonessential aminos are: glycine, glutamic acid, arginine, aspartic acid, proline, alanine, serine, tyrosine, cyestine, asparagine, and glutamine.)
All animal proteins are "complete", meaning that they have all nine EAAs. Plant proteins, though, are incomplete, meaning that they do not have all nine. Vegetarian diets must combine different plant products (like beans and rice) to include all nine EAAs.
When protein is consumed, the chain is broken and all the component amino acids are freed, then reassembled where the body needs them, most likely in a new configuration. It is commonly thought that the body can process only 30 grams of protein at any one time (ie per meal). This is a myth. Protein digestion is highly variable, depending on the type of proteins involved and the individual.
Protein goes to a variety of uses in the body. Some is broken down to amino acids which are resynthesized into new proteins that the body needs (eg red blood cells, muscle) for normal functioning. Some protein is broken down into glucose to fuel body tissues - this occurs under conditions of low carbohydrate supply. For this reason it is said that dietary carbs "spare" protein. Glucose formation from protein can occur with dietary protein, but it can also occur with body tissues...ie muscle! Protein can also be converted into ketones that the body either uses or stores (as fat). Finally, amino acids that are not used for protein formation are converted to urea and excreted.
The RDA for the general public has been set at 0.8 g protein per KILOGRAM of lean body weight per day. [A kilogram is approximately 2.2 pounds. Note that *lean* body weight is the standard - calculate total bodyfat and subtract that from current bodyweight.] Most scientists generally accept that this amount is too low for athletes and weightlifters since their protein turnover (ordinary daily breakdown and synthesis) is higher. Protein turnover is estimated to be around 24 grams a day for an average 70 kg man. An appropriate intake for athletes and bodybuilders is still unclear, and realistically it will vary for each individual. A fair but conservative estimate is along the lines of 1 to 2 g protein per kg lean body weight, depending on whether you are in a weight-maintenance cycle or actively trying to gain mass. Higher levels of protein may or may not be more beneficial. The goal is to have a "positive nitrogen balance", which means that you have more protein in your system than you excrete. In other words, your body keeps some and builds new muscle tissue with it. High protein intake (> 3 g/kg) possibly could place stress on kidney functions, because protein contains nitrogen and excess amounts form toxic ammonia which must be excreted, but extensive studies have failed to show any link between high protein intake and actual kidney damage. (Some professional bodybuilders have needed kidney transplants, but that is probably due to the truckloads of steroids they took.)
Thanks to Joe Altenbuchner, Bryan Chung, Bob Koss, Scott Siler, Michael Burns, Dag, and Eric Nix.
An inactive person requires a minimum of 1.2 liters (40 oz) of water a day to keep all body systems functioning properly. Some level of activity (walking around, normal daily actions) doubles this requirement. High humidity again can double the needed amount, as can hard exercise. It may not be unusual to reach a need of 8-10 liters (2 - 2.5 gal) a day.
To adequately rehydrate yourself at the end of the day, drink water slowly, one glass at a time, until you have to "answer the call". Then continue to drink more water, until the need arises a second time.
Remember that caffeine and alcohol are diuretic, so consuming coffee, tea, beer, etc, will cause the body a net LOSS of water. One indicator of insufficient water intake is the color of urine - the darker it is, the more water you need. (However other medical conditions and drugs may also have a discoloring effect.) Since your body runs on autopilot for six to eight hours while you are asleep, try to get enough water in the evening. This may allieviate the snacking urge a little, and your kidneys will be much happier, too.
Exercising in hot weather means dehydration, no question about it. The body cools itself by circulating blood closer to the skin, and through sweating. Dehydration makes these cooling mechanisms less efficient, leading to more rapid fatigue and a higher risk of heat exhaustion and heatstroke. In tests, cyclists who did not have adequate water intake experienced significantly faster heart rates at lower speeds than the control subjects, who were well hydrated.
Symptoms of dehydration after a workout include heavy fatigue, lethargy, headache, dizziness and nausea. These may persist for a day or longer without adequate water replacement. Dehydration is common. Normal sweating during exercise in heat means between a 2 to 6% loss of bodyweight. (As an example, a 180 lb man could lose 7 pounds of water.) Also, acclimation to heat means a person gets more efficient at cooling off - through sweating and blood circulation - so an acclimated person requires MORE water, rather than less.
How much water should you drink in hot weather?
- 500ml (16 oz) 2 hrs before exercise
- 250-500 ml (8-16 oz) right before exercise
- Weigh yourself before and after exercise and drink 500 ml (16 oz) for
each 0.5 kg (pound) you lose.
Cool water 4.4 - 10 C (40-50 degrees F) is easiest for the body to absorb - better than very cold water. A 5-7% sugar solution (no higher!) may speed absorption and assist recovery.
It is possible to drink too much water. The effects can include nausea, convulsions, and vomiting. The condition is called hyponatremia, an excessively low sodium concentration in the blood due to dilution. On the same lines, "water intoxication" has occurred in marathoners and others engaging in prolonged activity. Apparently one physiological adaption to exercise is the release of antidiuretic hormones and a slowing of kidney functions.
Minerals are similar to vitamins in that both vitamins and minerals are generally found in relatively small quantities in the body, yet have major roles in key body functions. Minerals differ from vitamins in that minerals are simply elements, not organic compounds. The minerals known to be necessary are sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, phosphorus, iron, zinc, chromium, magnesium, fluoride, iodine, copper, manganese, molybdenum, and selenium. Diet and a general multivitamin supplement are likely to provide an adequate supply of these minerals.
Sodium is an element (Na), usually found in the body as an ion with a positive charge (Na+, a cation) in conjunction with chloride (Cl-). NaCl is more commonly known as table salt. Salt, and more precisely, the appropriate level of salinity, is crucial to the proper function of the body. Sodium concentrations in the blood and body tissues directly affect the osmotic flow of water; high sodium concentrations attract water into the blood and tissues, and the higher fluid levels are linked directly to hypertension and high blood pressure. Think of it this way: life evolved in the ocean, and we now carry the ocean around inside us. Chemical reactions are highly sensitive to salinity, so the body has evolved to maintain the necessary levels at any cost. So if you consume more sodium than is necessary, the body must dilute the concentration (by retaining water). Potassium is another element (K or K+ cation) that is also used in many of the same processes as sodium.
From: Scott Bean (scotbean@ksu.ksu.edu)
Subject: Recommended Sodium Intake
I have a quick question concerning sodium. Everyone says to keep sodium
levels as low as possible, but how low is low? What is a good number to
shoot for in terms of mg/day? I have recently started tracking my
sodium intake, but I have absolutely no idea what the numbers mean.
Scott
From: GaNightowl@aol.com
Subject: Re: Recommended Sodium Intake
Scott
The American Heart Association recommends that a person consume no more than 2,400 mg of sodium per day.
It should be noted that studies of high sodium intake have NOT been directly linked to high blood pressure, heart disease, or other ailments in your future life (i.e. sodium isn't like fat, which has been shown to increase your risks for the above three with time).
However, sodium intake is usually directly related to your *current* blood pressure. If you visit your family/internal physician and he or she deems you as having high blood pressure or "borderline" high blood pressure, then he or she may put you on a sodium restricted diet (sometimes as low as 200 mg per day, which is EXTREMELY hard to accomplish). The restricted sodium intake will usually lower your current blood pressure and probably will keep you off of blood pressure medication. If this approach fails, then he or she might consider the use of antihypertensive medications. PLEASE DON'T TAKE THIS TO MEAN THAT IF YOU TAKE MEDICATION FOR HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE THAT YOUCAN STOP TAKING IT AND CUT YOUR SODIUM INTAKE TO LOWER YOUR B/P. CONSULT WITH YOUR PHYSICIAN FIRST!
If you don't have high blood pressure and you consume 4,000 mg of sodium per
day, then you could probably get by with that amount. If your blood pressure
starts to rise, then you'd better adjust it. Even though you could get by
with it, I wouldn't recommend it. I don't consume any more than 2,000-2,400
mg per day, and I recommend to my patients to not consume any more than 2,400
mg per day.
Eric
Unfortunately, many convenient foods for bodybuilders are very high in sodium. Sneaky sources of sodium include: cottage cheese, lunch meats (sodium nitrate as a preservative), bakery products (sodium bicarbonate or just plain salt), and diet soft drinks (sodium saccharine) from "fountains" in restaurants and markets. This is not an exclusive list; there are probably numerous other sources that are just as subtle, so it pays to pay attention.
Besides the health concerns, the other direct consequence of high sodium is water retention, which obscures the hard-won results of dieting and aerobics. The bottom line again is to strike a balance based on your own goals and your own chemistry. Not everyone is equally susceptible to water retention, and similarly, it might be worth the convenience to keep the nonfat cottage cheese. Look at your diet and make some tradeoffs - for example, if you eat both lunch meat AND cottage cheese, replace one or the other if not both.
Drinking more water is effective in reducing sodium levels. This is another good reason to make an effort to adequately hydrate yourself every day. Remember, thirst is not a valid indicator of the body's need for water.
On the flip side, it is unlikely that anyone is deficient in sodium. The average American diet today contains far, far more salt than the body needs. Even heavy aerobic exercise with profuse sweating is unlikely to seriously deplete one's sodium levels. Any shortfall will soon be corrected by dietary sodium. Sports drinks that advertise their "electrolyte replacements" are treading on hype. However, endurance aerobic activity can actually create a significant short-term loss of sodium, usually indicated by cramping. Examples are long distance bike or running marathons, triathalons, "Iron Man" competitions, and so on. People engaged in these events may need sodium replenishment to ward off painful muscle cramps Also, people who have been vomiting may also have a sodium imbalance, especially if they have the "dry heaves" and cannot keep plain water down. A sports drink or some salt in the water may be helpful.
Potassium, like sodium, is another element usually found as an ion (K+ cation) in the body. Potassium is also used in many of the same processes as sodium, notably the transmission of nerve impulses, muscle contraction, and the absorption of glucose into blood from the digestive tract. Potassium ions also regulate the secretion of hydrochloric acid in the intestines and stomach.
Potassium and sodium are both present as positively charged ions in and around certain cells. Nerve cells in particular rely on the difference in relative concentration of these two ions to relay impulses. An "action potential" is a wave of charge that travels along nerve cells through the body. As it moves along the nerve cell, ion channels in the membrane open. Sodium flows into the cell and potassium flows out. After the impulse passes, the reverse process restores the previous balance.
From: eskra1@jeflin.tju.edu (Benjamin D. Eskra)
Subject: Low K+ and muscle cramping
Why does a shortage of potassium lead to muscle cramping?
There could be 2 different effects of low K+ that could lead to cramps.
First, K+ is involved in the repolarization of the muscle membrane during an
action potential. If the K+ concentration is low within the cell, the driving
force on K+ is lower, and the repolarization is slower. This will have no
effect on the absolute refractory period of the action potential (the time when
it is impossible to initiate another action potential), but the muscle cell
will be more depolarized than usual following the absolute refractory period
and thus closer to the AP threshold.
The result may be that fewer action potentials are required to reach tetanus (maximal force resulting from temporal summation from multiple stimulation). The end result could be an overuse of ATP (at a fixed duration of neuromuscular stimulation) compared to the normal state, and thus a need to rely more heavily on anaerobic glycolysis to provide energy with its subsequent increase in lactate, and thus cramps.
Secondly, there may be a K+-lactate symport (secondary facilitated diffusion
mechanism) that removes lactate from the muscle cell. If such a transporter
exists, low K+ levels would slow the removal of lactate from the muscle
cell - resulting in cramps when excess lactate accumulated.
Ben Eskra
There is no RDA for potassium, but the basic requirement is estimated to be around 2,000 mg for adults. Good dietary sources include oranges, bananas, apricots, avocados, potatoes, lean meats, dried peas and beans, coffee, tea, and cocoa. Deficiency can occur from dehydration, use of laxatives or diuretics, vomiting, or inadequate dietary sources. Symptoms of deficiency include irritability, weakness, and erratic or slowed heartbeat.
From: eskra1@jeflin.tju.edu (Benjamin D. Eskra)
Subject: A bit more about potassium
Potassium levels are maintained in a very narrow range. Any deviations from
the normal levels can have devastating effects on the heart and central nervous
system. Luckily, the body is very good at regulating potassium concentration,
and severe deficiencies or excesses (hypokalemia and hyperkalemia,
respectively) are uncommon unless the body is stressed by disease or chronic
malnutrition. The body is able to respond within a few hours to a large intake
of potassium, but the response is much slower to a depletion. Aldosterone, a
hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex, promotes increased sodium reabsorption
in the kidneys and increased excretion of potassium. Aldosterone is released
when sodium levels fall due to salt excretion in sweat. Increased
aldosterone secretion promotes loss of potassium. Diuretics, such as caffeine,
enhance this loss. Vomiting and diarrhea are also responsible for a
considerable loss of potassium (so is black licorice).
Muscle fatigue is one of the prominent symptoms of moderate potassium
depletion. Therefore, it is important during intense exercise to replenish the
lost potassium with fluid electrolyte replacement drinks. Many sports drinks
are beginning to contain the proper proportions of NaCl and potassium.
Ben Eskra
Calcium is an element (Ca), also a mineral, which is the primary component in the bones, teeth, and nails. In its ionic form (Ca+), calcium also plays an important role in muscular contraction. Too little calcium in the diet can lead to osteoporosis - soft, brittle bones - in the long term, and too much can cause kidney stones and interfere with the absorption of other minerals such as iron and magnesium. The major sources of dietary calcium are dairy products.
An early study indicated a correlation between high protein diets and an increase in calcium excretion, but it is disputed. In one study, men were given 47, 95, and 142 grams of protein per day. All lost less calcium when they consumed 47 grams of protein than when consuming 95 grams of protein; and all except two lost more calcium when consuming 142 grams. The representative daily calcium loss increased from 184 to 394 milligrams of calcium when protein intake increased from 47 to 142 grams. Source: Linkswiler, H.; Calcium - Present Knowledge in Nutrition, The Nutrition Foundation, 1976
This study later was criticized for poor methodology, and a subsequent, more rigorous study found no evidence of accelerated calcium loss with simiar high protein diets. (Herta Spencer at Hines VA Medical Center in Illinois). OTOH, the methodological problem with the original study was the fact that *purified* protein was used, rather than meat. So someone taking large amounts of purified protein supplements conceivably could have a calcium depletion problem. Of course, most purified protein supplements come in the form of shake mix powders, which are combined with...milk. Milk being one of the best sources for calcium, it seems the conundrum disappears.
From: Michael A Burns (burn0039@gold.tc.umn.edu)
Subject: Calcium and Phosphorus
What effect does dietary phosphorus have on calcium?
Phosphorous is metabolized with calcium in the human body, which means
that excessive P intake will deplete calcium. If dietary calcium
is insufficient to match dietary phosphorous, it will make up the
difference through skeletal catabolism.
A 1987 abstract from Spencer et al. states that phosphorus intake up to 2g/day and complex proteins do not cause calcium loss. Negative calcium balance among the test subjects at a normal intake of 800mg/day was brought into balance and plateaued at a level of 1.2g per day. The identity of the test subjects, as well as any other data, were completely omitted from the abstract. They may have been lemurs.
Several more recent studies actually discovered a correlation between
dietary phosphorus (and/or dietary protein) and endogenous calcium loss
but these experiments were ubiquitous in that they involved less than 30
subjects and that the dietary constraints involved a calcium intake of
under 800mg/day and twice as much phosphorus as calcium.
Michael A. Burns
So to answer two of the most common questions relevant to us:
1) Will a high protein diet cause calcium loss?
Most likely not in itself. A meat-based diet is unlikely to increase calcium excretion beyond normal levels. Exclusive use of protein powder supplements might, if there is no offsetting consumption of dairy products.
2) Will the phosphoric acid in soft drinks cause calcium loss?
Again, most likely not in itself. A few soft drinks a week will not make a substantial difference. A pattern of heavy consumption of soft drinks and few dairy products might deserve a closer look, though.
You probably do not need to worry about your calcium levels, unless you chronically avoid dairy products or have an unusually high intake of phosphorus (possibly including phosphocreatine supplements) or purified protein. However, the average American diet contains higher levels of phosphorus than of calcium in general. If you eat a lot of highly processed food, calcium supplementation might be a good idea. Other materials suggest a level of 1,000 mg/day (1 gram). A pair of calcium antacid tablets has one-third the RDA for calcium, but be careful to avoid aluminum or magnesium based antacids. Also, many multivitamins now also include calcium, though not a full gram.
The efficiency of calcium absorption generally will vary based on need and intake. High demand and low intake will result in greater efficiency of absorption. Childhood growth, menstruation, pregnancy and breast feeding will all raise calcium needs and thus absorption. Exercise on a regular basis may as well, particularly if it produces higher bone density.
Some dietary factors include the presence of vitamin D, lactose, and fat in the digestive tract. These all increase absorption. This is one reason dairy products are an important part of your diet. Also, absorption of calcium increases when a full meal is consumed, rather than if it is taken by itself.
Note: lactose, also known as milk sugar, enhances absorption in most people because most people have normal levels of lactase, the enzyme which breaks it down. But for people deficient in lactase, lactose will reduce absorption. Vitamin D also must be "active" to be beneficial. See the vitamin section for more details.
Inactive vitamin D, and low intake will lower calcium absorption. So will oxalic acid (found in spinach, rhubarb, beet greens, and chard), phytic acid (found in the husks of certain grains),and some medications.
Calcium is lost in sweat at a rate of around 15 mg a day. Heavy exercise increases calcium loss. Caffeine and theophylline intake may cause calcium loss. Some studies have found a link between caffeine consumption and calcium loss, on the order of 5 mg of Ca for each 6 oz of coffee or 24 oz of cola consumed. Extended immobility, from bed rest or having an arm or leg in a cast, willincrease calcium loss due to a lack of coordinated tension on the bones. This also occurs in the weightless condition of space flight, which is why astronauts have to make an effort to exercise.
Phosphorus is the second most abundant element in the body after calcium. Phosphorus has critical roles in energy production, bone formation, cell metabolism and growth, and cell membrane structure.
Cell membranes are primarily composed of fatty acids with attached phopshorus atoms. These phospholipids are arranged in a double layer with the phosphorus at the outer and inner boundaries.
This arrangement has distinct structural advantages. Phosphorus tends to attract water, while lipids tend to repel it. ( "Oil and water don't mix." ) As a result, there is a very distinct barrier separating the cell interior from the surrounding environment, allowing greater control over which materials can and cannot enter and leave the cell. Specific structures and mechanisms regulate this.
(outside of cell) PPPPPPPPPPPPP |||||||||||||||||||||||||| |||||||||||||||||||||||||| |||||||||||||||||||||||||| |||||||||||||||||||||||||| ppppppppppp (inside of cell)
Phosphorus is a critical structural component of DNA and RNA. DNA has a double helical organization, like a twisted ladder. The "rungs" of the ladder are nucleotides (adenosine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine). The rungs attach to a sugar (deoxyribose) and a phosphate group. RNA is similar, but the sugar is different (ribose), and so is one of the nucleotides (uracil occurs in place of thymine); also RNA is only single stranded.
Phosphorus is the critical part of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy currency of cellular metabolism. The ultimate result of all food intake is chemical reactions that generate ATP. Most often, ATP is broken down to ADP (adenosine diphosphate) + P + energy, though if energy needs are high, ATP can go down to AMP (adenosine monophospate). There are a variety of ways the body generates ATP, including glycolysis, lipolysis, and the Krebs cycle. More on those in the More Complex Biochemisty section of the FAQ.
ATP can also be processed into cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate), which is a component of a hormonal control system within the cell. cAMP activates enzymes within the cell by phophorylating them. cAMP causes a "free" phosphorus atom to bond to the enzyme and this bond changes the physical orientation of the enzyme because the addition of the new atom alters the distribution of electrical charge within the molecule. The change in charge and shape of the molecule changes its reactive tendencies, making it more reactive. Conversely, removal of a phosphorus atom from such an enzyme accomplishes the reverse, creating a different structural change that will tend to make the enzyme less reactive.
Dietary sources of phosphorus include milk, meats, beans, whole grain cereals and breads, and even soft drinks and snack foods (in the form of phosphoric acid). The average recommended intake is around 800 milligrams, but most people get plenty of phosphorus without having to make any special effort.
Iron plays a key role in the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide during respiration and is an active component of enzymes involved in mitochondrial energy processes. It also seems to be involved in the immune system and in higher mental functions. Since it is connected with such basic processes, it is very important to avoid iron deficiency.
An iron atom is found in the center of the protein heme. Hemoglobin and myoglobin contain heme. Hemoglobin occurs in the red blood cells of the blood stream and contains four heme groups. Myoglobin resides within muscle cells and contains only one heme group. Oxygen binds cooperatively to the iron in the heme group (oxygenating rather than oxidizing). Hemoglobin binds oxygen in a slightly different way than myoglobin does;there is a structural bias in hemoglobin that favors all four heme groups loading and unloading simultaneously, while myoglobin picks up oxygen as a matter of simple diffusion. This makes sense if we consider hemoglobin's function as a carrier molecule. Myoglobin is more of a relay messenger.
Carbon monoxide is a deadly poison because it binds more strongly to iron than oxygen does. O2 is happy to connect and disconnect with the iron atom on cue from the body, but CO remains bonded. Prolonged exposure to carbon monoxide runs the risk that the majority of hemoglobin in the blood will become locked away and unavailable for oxygen transport. Cyanide has a similar effect, though it binds with the oxygenated iron atom, and also acts more quickly. (That's why it is the favored drug of captured Nazi war criminals in old movies.)
Iron is also found in enzymes in the mitochondria, small organelles found in every cell. Mitochondria are the place where the Krebs cycle energy reactions occur. Iron deficiency can reduce the production of ATP, the basic cellular energy currrency. (Mitochondria have their own DNA that is separate from the other cellular DNA, and some scientists believe that these organelles were originally independant bacteria which developed a symbiotic relationship with larger organisms.)
The body has homeostatic mechanisms to maintain necessary levels, and if needs rise, it takes steps to increase absorption from dietary sources. Of course, even high absorption may be inadequate if intake is too low, or if other factors interfere with absorption.
Date: Tue, 4 Feb 1997 10:09:25 -0500 (EST)
From: Lynne Meyer-Gay (meyergay@user1.channel1.com)
Subject: Iron absorption
Iron absorption can be tricky. I had to learn about it by trial and error (and
reading) when I was losing lots of blood every month.
There are two kinds of iron--heme (animal protein source) and nonheme
(iron supplements, veggies). When I was a vegetarian, even though I was
taking in 1200 mg (!!!) per day of ferrous sulfate (doctor
prescribed--equivalent to eating a tiny iron skillet every day), I didn't make
any real progress toward increasing my hemoglobin and hematocrit until I gave
up vegetarianism and became a carnivore. Then my iron levels zoomed. Heme iron
is vastly superior to nonheme for absorption.
The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for iron is 10 mg per day for men, 15 mg per day for women. Although I took 1200 mg per day of iron supplements for correction of a severe problem, a more reasonable dose for iron deficiency might be about 30 mg of ferrous sulfate or ferrous fumerate twice a day.
Your doctor will probably tell you to take iron supplements with a glass of orange juice (or a vitamin C pill), but he/she probably doesn't know that you should also avoid taking iron supplements or iron-rich foods in combination with calcium-rich foods or calcium supplements because the calcium will bind with the iron. Also too much fiber inhibits absorbtion of nonheme iron from foods. Tannin in coffee and tea binds with iron, making less available. A cup of tea with breakfast can block 3/4 of the iron you would have absorbed. Cooking foods in an iron pot whenever you can adds nonheme iron to your foods. And, of course, eat iron-rich foods. If you have trouble with constipation, eat prunes, for they are God's food, containing among their properties both iron and the antidote to too much iron. Working out and other forms of exercise also increase the body's ability to absorb iron.
I was operating at less than half mast for years due to heavy blood losses and
attendant low iron, not knowing that was what was wrong with me. I thought it
was depression. Now, every time I hear a woman of menstruating age mention
she's depressed or bagged out, I bring up the iron issue and urge her to get
tested.
Lynne
--------------------
Like Lynne says, heme iron is the best dietary source of iron, and is found in meat, fish, and poultry. However, meat is a much better source for heme iron than fish or poultry. Recent health trends towards more fish and chicken consumption pose a potential risk of inadequate iron intake. So, it looks like a good idea to keep some red meat in your weekly meal plan. The best dietary iron sources in descending order are: liver, shellfish, kidney, red meat, poultry, fish, beans, and egg yolks.
The average adult loses around 1 mg/day of iron, but athletes may lose more. As would be expected, vegetarians, pre-menopausal women, and children are considered to be most at risk for low iron levels.
There is some confusion currently over whether high or low levels of iron are more desirable. The traditional view was that high iron levels had no effect on health, but this was challenged recently by a Finnish study which linked high iron levels with an increased risk of heart disease.
A study was conducted by the National Institute on Aging (NIA) to investigate the results of the 1992 Finnish study, which found a correlation between high iron levels in elderly men and coronary disease.
The NIA study intentionally took a broader range of subjects, with a broader disparity in iron levels, and found essentially the opposite of the Finnish study. The subject group comprised almost 4,000 men and women at least 71 years old. Elderly men with high iron levels were only 20% as likely to suffer from coronary disease as elderly men with low iron levels. Women with high iron levels were only half as likely to have coronary problems as those in the lowest iron group.
Dr. Jack Guralnik, the lead researcher, stated, "...in the general older population, we saw a clear trend in the direction where the higher the iron, the lower the risk."He went on to say that nutrition was probably not the only factor involved, but iron levels are probably a good "barometer" of possible disease risk. Reference: American Journal of Cardiology (1997:79;120-127).
So it may not be necessary to keep iron levels down by donating blood. Still, it is probably a good idea to keep track of your iron levels and also to give blood occasionally if you have the stomach for it.
Date: Sat, 18 Jan 1997 16:22:47 -0600
From: Eddy (nbafvideo@usa.pipeline.com)
Subject: Zinc
Zinc! Not much is written about this key nutrient. You won't see any
big ads for zinc. Why? Because you can purchase zinc supplements just
about anywhere, for just a few dollars a bottle.
Testosterone, the most effective anabolic our bodies naturally produce, is known to be closely interrelated with zinc. Mild deficiency causes a low sperm count. Double blind studies have shown that supplemental zinc can increase blood levels of testosterone in men with deficient zinc levels -- and most people, when tested, are shown to be deficent. Male athletes with just mild zinc deficiency will increase their plasma levels of testosterone with supplementation.
Another important effect of zinc is on wound healing. In one study on a group of patients recovering from wounds, one group received 150 milligrams of zinc daily, and a control group received no supplemental zinc. The group that received the zinc were completely healed in 46 days. The control group took eighty days for complete healing.
Additional research has shown that zinc is essential for cell-mediated immunity, may help to inhibit several types of cancer, including prostate, and is useful in fighting the common cold. Zinc appears to help prevent a vision loss in the elderly called macular degeneration, and even plays a role in taste and smell. (In fact, the only noticeable symptom of zinc deficiency is diminished taste sensations.) There is some evidence that zinc may have anti-inflammatory properties as well.
RECOMMENDATIONS:
The RDAs for zinc are: 15 milligrams for men, 12 for women, 3 for infants,
10 for children ages 1 to 10, 15 for pregnant women and 16 to 19 for those
nursing. Older people may require higher amounts as our ability to absorb
zinc decreases with age. Athletes may require more as sweating can cause a
significant loss. Those on high fiber and vegan diets may have an increased need as well.
The best food sources of zinc include brewers yeast and wheat brand or germ
(this may be the reason that many bodybuilders have had good results with
these), whole grains and, of course, oysters.
Walter Eddy NBAF
From: Jeff Johnson (performance@ICDC.COM)
Subject: Re: Zinc
Ron Nirenberg asked:
>About zinc: if it is recommended that athletes take more than the
>RDA because of loss during perspiration, does this mean that it is
>water-soluble? I always thought that minerals stay in the body during
>sweating and only water soluble vitamins (like C) are lost in sweat.
Zinc is water soluble, as are dietary minerals in general. Minerals can be lost in perspiration. The saltiness of sweat due to its sodium content is an example.
Zinc is an essential "trace" mineral and is required to produce testosterone. "Trace" means you require very little of it. Zinc deficiency inhibits testosterone production, but zinc supplementation will not produce excess testosterone. Zinc is a component of many enzymes, assists in the mineralization of bone, the digestion of protein and the conversion of macro-nutrients to energy.
>What are the negative side effects associated with too much zinc?
While it is relatively non-toxic in doses up to 45mg daily, exceeding this amount can impair copper absorption. Long term doses of 80-150mg daily might lower HDL cholesterol. (HDL is the "good" cholesterol which reduces risk of heart disease.) DO NOT USE a zinc supplement by itself. Instead, use a quality multi-vitamin which contains 15mg zinc and take it with food. This amount in adition to your dietary intake will provide all of the zinc you need.
Jeff Johnson
Performance Fitness & Nutrition
Zinc lozenges have recently gained attention as a treatment for the common cold. Mast cells in the immune system release the Zn2+ ion as a weapon against cold rhinovirii. These ions both attack the virii directly and stimulate production of interferon, which also attacks cold virii. Supplementation with zinc to increase levels of Zn2+ during colds has been shown to reduce the duration and intensity of illness.
The catch is that not all zinc lozenges are equally effective. The best choices, in order, are Zinc Acetate, Zinc Chloride, and Zinc Gluconate. There is a bitterness problem with zinc lozenges; the more potent forms tend to react badly with sugars and other ingredients normally found in lozenges. Zinc acetate and zinc chloride are the most effective, but apparently zinc acetate has a somewhat better taste. Zinc gluconate is about half as effective. Other formulations are either minimally effective, or actually can *worsen* immune response and cold symptoms due to chemical reactions between the ingredients and the zinc.
Iodine is necessary for proper functioning of the thyroid gland and thyroid hormones (thyroxine, T4, and tri-iodothyronine, T3). Low levels of iodine can cause hypothyroidism, essentially a sluggish metabolism with impaired energy utilization. Chronic deficiency can cause an abnormal swelling of the thyroid gland called a goiter. The RDA for iodine is 150 mcg. Iodine is added to salt and deficiency is uncommon.
Magnesium is important in energy metabolism. Low levels of magnesium can decrease the efficiency of oxygen use. Healthy subjects with low magnesium levels used ten to fifteen percent more oxygen during low intensity aerobic exercise than subjects with normal magnesium levels. The low magnesium subjects also experienced heart rates 10 beats per minute faster during exercise. "[L]ow magnesium is associated with increased physiological demands to do the same amount of work as when magnesium is adequate....Therefore, people will not be able to work as long or as productively when they are on a low-magnesium diet." said Dr. Henry Lukaski, the U.S. Department of Agriculture researcher involved in the study. The RDA for magnesium is 350 milligrams. Good sources include green vegetables and unprocessed grains.
Fluorine, copper (RDA 3 mg), manganese (RDA 2-5 mcg), and selenium (RDA 100 mcg) are some other important trace minerals. Taking amounts of trace minerals far in excess (4x and greater) of the RDA has been shown to have detrimental effects.
A vitamin is an organic substance that your body requires to help regulate functions within cells. There are thirteen vitamins: A, B1, B2, riboflavin, B3/niacin, B6, folate, B12, biotin, pantothenate, C, D, E, and K. These are either fat soluble or water soluble. Water soluble vitamins pass through the body in 24 to 48 hours and so are important to have in the diet. Fat soluble vitamins, on the other hand, are stockpiled in fat in the adipose tissue, so short-term dietary deficiencies are not critical.
Fat-soluble vitamins: A, D, E, and K.
Vitamin A, also known as retinol, has several key functions. It works like a steroid hormone in cell growth and division because it directly affects the production of certain key proteins involved in the process. It works as a signalling agent in retinal nerves when light strikes them. It works to maintain healthy skin by regulating mucus production. It also serves as an antioxidant.
Deficiencies of vitamin A can result in dry, scaly skin, increased levels of infection due to the drying out of mucus membranes, possible impaired functioning of the immune system, night blindness, and possible increased risk of cancer.
The RDA for vitamin A is 1,000 mcg (of retinol). The best sources are liver, egg yolks, whole milk, and butter. Beta carotene is a precursor compound to vitamin A, and it is found in dark green and yellow vegetables. Six units of beta carotene are converted to one unit of retinol, so the RDA for beta carotene is 6,000 mcg. Most people get about 2/3 of the RDA, since vegetables are frequently left out of people's diets. Supplemental vitamin A or (better) eating more spinach, carrots, squash, and similar vegetables would be a good idea. Vitamin A overdoses can be toxic and since this is a fat soluble, excess amounts can accumulate, though this is unlikely with dietary sources.
Vitamin D also has significant hormone-like function. It is central to calcium level regulation in the bones and blood. Two forms exist, vitamin D2 and D3, and the body uses them identically. Exposure to sunlight three times a week for ten to thirty minutes (depending on intensity) should cause the body to produce adequate levels of D3, but many foods are also fortified with extra D2. Vitamin D is processed first in the liver and then in the kidneys. This produces the "activated" form of D (1,25(OH)2D).
Parathyroid hormone stimulates the production of this "activated" hormone-like form of D. Low blood calcium levels trigger release of parathyroid hormone, which activates D.
Blood calcium levels are maintained from two sources - diet and bone. When levels drop, parathyroid hormone levels rise, which increases production of "activated" D. Activated D functions like a steroid hormone in intestinal cells and causes the formation of certain proteins which handle calcium absorption in the digestive tract. Activated D also works to release calcium from bone when dietary sources are inadequate. When levels rise, parathyroid hormone levels drop, a different form of D is produced, and calcium excretion and bone mineralization increases.
Deficiency of vitamin D results in rickets in young people (deformed bones) and osteoporosis or bone fractures in older people. Due to fortification, deficiencies are rare. Excess vitamin D (10 -100 times the RDA) can be toxic and can lead to kidney stones. The RDA is 10 mcg.
Dietary sources of D are dairy products, saltwater fish like salmon and herring, liver, and egg yolks.
Vitamin E, also known as alpha tocepherol, is sort of a nutritional mystery. It seems to function as an antioxidant, and indirectly in cellular respiration and in heme formation. Deficiencies are hard to create so its role still is unclear. The RDA (80-100 mcg) seems adequate for most people. There may be toxicity at dosages above 600 mg a day.
Recently we have learned that Vitamin E exists in two forms, alpha and gamma tocepherol. Most vitamin supplements contain only alpha tocepherol. Gamma tocepherol can be found in dietary sources of vitamin E, like soybeans, nuts, and grains. The two forms seem to work together in neutralizing so-called "free radicals" in the body. Some researchers believe that taking only the alpha form (via supplements) will deplete the gamma form and will result in higher levels of free radicals and more damage. Others suggest that eating a diet with sufficient fruits and vegetables will have a compensatory effect and that there is no need to be concerned about taking vitamin E supplements. The more cautious view suggests taking no more than 100 IU of vitamin E a day.
Vitamin K comes in two forms. K1 is found in green vegetables, and K2 is produced by intestinal bacteria. K1 is a necessary part of the reactions which occur in blood clotting. Deficiencies of K are often shown by people who bruise easily and have slow coagulation. The RDA is 60-80 mcg (*micro*grams).
Water Soluble Vitamins (Energy reaction related)
Vitamin B1, also known as thiamine, quickly forms thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) in the body. TPP is a coenzyme which mediates several important steps connected with the Krebs cycle, such as the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl co-A, and one step of the Krebs cycle itself. TPP also seems to have a role in nerve impulse transmission. Symptoms of thiamine deficiency include loss of appetite, fatigue, depression, nausea, irritability, and constipation. Severe deficiency can lead to beri beri. Due to food fortification, thiamine deficiency is rare and usually only occurs in alcoholics and people on very restricted diets. The RDA is 1.0 to 1.5 mg.
Riboflavin, vitamin B2, is the precursor for FAD, an energy reaction compound widely used in the body. Due to food fortification, deficiency is rare and usually only occurs in alcoholics. Milk, meat, eggs, and cereals are good sources. The RDA is 1.5 to 1.7 mg.
Niacin, vitamin B3, is the precursor for NAD and NADH, another energy reaction compound commonly used in mitochodria. Again, due to food fortification, deficiency is rare and usually only occurs in alcoholics. Meats, legumes, and cereals are good sources. The RDA is 13-19 mg.
Vitamin B6 occurs naturally in several forms, all of which turn into pyridoxal phosphate, which has a major role in the metabolism of amino acids, the formation of serotonin and norephinepherine, and also seems to be involved in the formation of nerve cell myelin and heme. Mild deficiency symptoms include nervousness, irritability, and depression. B6 requirements seem to be linked to protein consumption, and the RDA is 1.5 to 2.0 mg for an adult eating 100g of protein a day. Some evidence suggests that B6 supplementation might be a good idea. The recommended supplementation is .6 mg a day.
Pantothenic acid is a necessary precursor to acetyl co-A, the basic fuel of the Krebs cycle. Fortunately it is very widespread in food sources so deficiencies are uncommon.
Biotin has a number of functions, one of which is the formation of oxaloacetate, the basic substrate of the Krebs cycle. Sources include peanuts, chocolate, and eggs. However, the protein avidin in raw egg whites binds to biotin and takes it out of the body. Consuming large amounts of raw egg whites (more than 20 a day) results in biotin deficiencies. This is another reason to cook those eggs!
Other Water Soluble Vitamins
Folic acid is important in amino acid and purine synthesis. Deficiency can inhibit DNA formation. Pregnant women should take supplemental folic acid (400 mg/day) to avoid nervous system birth defects.
Vitamin B12, cobalamine, is an essential factor in preventing pernicious anemia and is thought to be important in cell division and replication. Deficiencies are rare, since the liver can store up to a six year supply.
A recent study found that HIV positive people deficient in vitamin B12 tend to develop AIDS in roughly half the time that people who are not deficient (4 years vs 8 years). Perhaps the extremely high turnover of immune system cells that occurs with HIV is responsible for depletion of B12. Low B12 levels might hamper replication of cells in the immune system and hasten its collapse. No advantage has been found so far in supernormal levels, but more studies will be done. The RDA is 6 mcg.
Vitamin C, ascorbic acid, functions to help normal collagen and bone formation, wound healing, and in capillary support. It increases absorption of dietary iron and spares other vitamins by acting as an antioxidant. Deficiencies may show up as easier bruising, impaired immune function, scurvy, or osteoporosis. Poor diet and stress are the major causes of inadequate levels of vitamin C. Recent studies point to 200 mg a day as the maximum amount that the body can absorb.
Prevention magazine suggests you look for the following in a multivitamin:
The article recommends taking a second combined supplement of:
Depending on your diet, this may not be necessary. The second supplement should be taken at a different time of day than the first because calcium can interfere with iron absorption.
An entire industry has grown up in the past twenty or thirty years, designed to sell you supplemental vitamins. What surplus vitamins will do is give you expensive urine and a lighter wallet, but not a longer life, improved athletic performance, or great sex. Just like with supplements, the hype far exceeds the reality, and you are far better off spending your money on real food and focusing your attention on making good meals and training harder and smarter.
Nonnutrients is a blanket group of compounds people frequently use which have no direct nutritional value.
Aspartame is a widely-used artificial sweetener. Most people take it for granted, but a few voice vocal opposition to it.
Nutrasweet is the commercial name for the chemical compound aspartame, which is composed of the amino acids phenylalanine and aspartic acid. In nearly everyone, these amino acids are processed normally, but in a very small number of people who suffer from the disease phenylketonuria (PKU), levels of phenylalanine are dangerous. PKU is a genetic disorder whose sufferers lack the enzyme to break down phenylalanine. High levels can accumulate in their blood and cause brain damage. Likewise, the same thing can happen to fetuses, but unless the pregnant mother has PKU, it is very unlikely that the levels will be anywhere close to a dangerous amount.
In the US the accepted daily intake is 50 mg per kilogram of bodyweight. (In Canada it is 40 mg.) This means a man of 175 lbs (80 kg) could consume 4,000 milligrams a day. An average can of diet soft drink has around 200 mg of aspartame, so this means 20 cans a day. A packet of Equal has 35 mg, so our hypothetical friend could have 114 of those. It is pretty unlikely that anyone would want to consume enough aspartame to run into problems.
From: ssiler@nature.Berkeley.EDU (Scott)
In the last issue Jerry wrote:
>>I heard that NutraSweet has wood alcohol in it. Anyone know anything about
this? Maybe that's what can cause an insulin spike? <<
There is indeed methanol (wood alcohol) in aspartame. Aspartame is a
dipeptide (two amino acids linked together) that has been chemically
modified. The modification is the introduction of the methanol. When
digested and absorbed, the methanol is liberated and introduced to the
bloodstream as the amino acids are. Methanol will not provoke any
insulinemic response. Methanol is actually a compound that is toxic to
humans and other animals. In particular, it affects vision by
interfering with the biochemical processes that occur. In very small
doses, negative side effects, like blindness, are negligible. Methanol is
the primary alcohol in that legendary stuff, Moonshine (anyone remember
those old Abbot and Costello movies?) Trace amounts of methanol are found
in many commercially prepared foodstuffs, particularly those that have been
artificially produced. In other words, most all of us are exposed to small
doses - particularly from aspartame - and I've never heard of a case of
methanol-induced blindness.
Scott
There may be a very minor, anticipatory release of insulin associated with Nutrasweet consumption. When the body senses something sweet, salivary enzymes send a neural impulse to the pancreas, where other enzymes get ready to release insulin. The same thing is likely to happen when you are drooling over that piece of chocolate cake (or even a picture of it!). Keep in mind that there is no sugar actually present in the blood yet to trigger an insulin burst, so the insulin reaction from say drinking a Diet Coke is miniscule compared to drinking a non-diet Coca-Cola.
Some people report a reaction to aspartame, saccaharin and sorbitol. After consuming an artificially sweetened soda or similar product, they experience dizziness, blurred vision and a severe headache. If it bothers you, stay with honey, molasses, fructose, stevia (an herb), or granulated sugar. Other people find aspartame to have a calming effect in stressful situations.
One last concern with aspartame is that you should avoid heating it. or consuming hot products (such as coffee, tea, cocoa...) that contain it. At high temperatures it breaks down into a number of side products, including methanol, and methanol breaks down into formaldehyde.
Nearly everyone knows what caffeine is and does. It is the classic stimulant. Nearly everyone consumes it on a frequent basis, whether in coffee, soft drinks, chocolate, headache remedies or other sources. It is as close to a completely safe substance as we know, though overdosing can be very unpleasant, with severe jitteriness, and even fatal in cases of extremely high consumption (something on the order of 200 cups of coffee or 50 vivarin tablets). The Caffeine FAQ is exhaustive in its explanation of facts about this drug, and it is worth a quick read. For our purposes, we will just cover a small portion of this subject.
Caffeine is one of a group of central nervous system stimulants called methylxanthines (others are theophylline and theobromine - found in tea). These agents have the following effects:
Three cellular actions of this group of compounds have received the most attention.
1) Calcium has a basic role in triggering muscle contraction. Caffeine concentration in the area can cause the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium even without a nervous impulse. If the concentrations are high enough, there can even be a muscle twitch!
It is also thought that theophyline can cause secretion of catecholamines (epinepherine & norepinepherine - the "fight or flight" hormones) in the absence of calcium.
2) & 3) Many peptide and amine hormones are mediated via cyclic nucleotides like cAMP (cyclic adenosine monphosphate). Normally, when the hormone detaches from the receptor in the cell membrane, enzymatic reactions deactivate cAMP. But methylxanthines seem to delay this deactivation. More cAMP remains active than would otherwise, and the effects of the hormone are greater, since more secondary messengers are available. It's sort of like paying overtime to tellers at the bank. The number of customers remains the same, but more of them can finish their transactions before the bank closes for the day.
The physiologic mediator (traffic cop) of cyclic nucletides is adenosine. Since methylxanthines are antagonists of adenosine, the end result will be opposite of the action of adenosine stimulation. Adenosine receptors can either lead to increased cyclic nucleotide formation or decreased cyclic nucleotide formation, depending on the organ system, or cell we are talking about.
Adenosine will: Caffeine will: 1)dilate cerebral blood flow 1) constrict cerebral blood flow 2)inhibit(strongly) hormone 2) lead to the release of epinepherine induced lipolysis which we know--> lipolysis. 3)inhibit release of neuro- 3) enhance the release of neuro- transmitters in CNS transmitters in the CNS 4)inhibit release of norepi 4) enhance release of norepi from from autonomic nerves autonomics.
The methylxanthines are easily oxidized to uric acid which is also very similar in chemical structure. This could explain why caffeine is a diuretic. When it breaks down to uric acid, the body tries to maintain the correct balance, and so must use water to dilute the uric acid concentration...which it then excretes.
Caffeine's half-life is 3.5 hours, and most effects wear off after about six. So keep this in mind when considering a cup of coffee or a cola later in the day or evening. All traces are gone after 12 hours, and this is the point at which "withdrawal" effects will start to occur in heavy users.
The caffeine molecule.
CH3
|
N
/ \
N----C C==O
|| || |
|| || |
CH C N--CH3
\ / \ /
N C
| ||
CH3 O
Caffeine increases the level of circulating fatty acids. This has been shown to increase the oxidation of these fuels, enhancing fat burning. Caffeine has been used for years by runners and endurance people to enhance fatty acid metabolism. But apparently the effect is more pronounced in people who are not habitual users of caffeine.
For the above reasons, it is a myth that taking "too much" caffeine will cause an insulin burst and lead to weight gain.
Caffeine is not addictive in the sense that drugs like heroin or alcohol are. Caffeine use does not progress in a continuous upward spiral of increasing doses. It is not difficult to stop using it. Caffeine is not linked to antisocial behavior, nor is it associated with any chronic health problems. However, habitual use does have negative side effects, including irritability, restlessness, tension, insomnia, and similar symptoms. Acclimated users can experience severe headaches or grogginess if their daily intake drops suddenly. (This is essentially a rebound effect of adenosine rising to high levels since its normal antagonist is missing.) Further, acclimation to the stimulant and fat burning effects occurs. Also, caffeine use has been linked to accelerated calcium loss, which does have important long term consequences. (Now we can see a possible explanation of why this happens, given the discussion above.) Finally, remember that although caffeine delays the onset of fatigue, it does nothing to allieviate it, so the longer you put it off, the more recovery you will ultimately need.
So it makes sense to keep tabs on your caffeine intake. If it is high, the common remedy is to gradually reduce the amount you consume by about half a cup of coffee (50-75 mg) a day until you reach the desired level. Given its prevalence, it is easy to consume it several times in the day without even noticing. Two cups of coffee in the morning, a soda at lunch, an Excedrin or two, and a cup of cocoa....and you've reached nearly 400 mg. 250 mg is considered to be a threshold for *overdose*, though the effects are fairly mild, body size has a major effect, and in the example above, we're talking about a whole day, not a few hours. But the point remains: cutting back your "gratuitous" caffeine intake will give you more benefit from the other times you use it.
Typical doses:
Coca-Cola 12 oz. 65 mg Mountain Dew 12 oz. 54 mg Jolt Cola 12 oz. 71 mg Drip coffee 6 oz 115-175 mg Espresso (1.5-2oz) 100 mg Brewed coffee 6 oz 80-135 mg Instant 65-100 mg Decaf 3-4 mg tea, iced (12 ozs.) 70 mg tea, brewed 6 oz 40-60 mg milk chocolate 1 oz. 1-15 mg dark chocolate 1 oz. 20 mg Anacin/Anacin-3 2 64 mg Excedrin 2 130 mg Midol 2 64 mg No-Doz 2 200 mg Vivarin 1 200 mg
Visit the Caffeine FAQ at http://daisy.uwaterloo.ca/~alopez-o/caffaq.html
for more high octane facts.
Thanks to Mitch Lieberman for most of the biochemistry stuff.
The alcohol that people drink is ethyl alcohol, also called ethanol. Other forms of alcohol are toxic to the body. Three different classes of alcoholic drinks exist: beer, wine, and distilled spirits. Beer generally has the lowest concentration of ethanol, wine is higher, and distilled spirits are the highest.
Alcohol is not digested. Instead it passes directly into the bloodstream from the stomach and lower intestine. Once there, its concentration is the blood alcohol level, the direct indicator of intoxication. The liver metabolizes alcohol in two steps. First, it uses the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase to break ethanol into acetaldehyde, but this is still poisonous so the liver uses aldehyde dehydrogenase to break it into acetic acid (more commonly known as vinegar). The liver then processes acetic acid into carbon dioxide and water. The rate of alcohol metabolism is fixed, around 10-15 mL of ethanol per hour. You cannot accelerate the sobering up process (with cold showers or black coffee, etc).
Concentration Nature of effect
<50 mg/dL Increased sociability; euphoria
50-100 mg/dL Disturbances in gait
Lack of concentration
Increased reaction time
100-150 mg/dL Ataxia
Impaired mental and motor skills
Impaired short-term memory
Slurred speech
200 mg/dL No response to sensory stimuli
250 mg/dL Coma
500 mg/dL Death
One mixed drink will usually raise BAL by 20-35 mg/dL.
Rather than going into a lot of details about intoxication and alcoholism, we will just say there is a lot of material available on this subject that is worth reading. It depresses the nervous system, impairs motor ability and judgment, and at high levels can produce unconsciousness, vomiting, and even death. Alcohol is a diuretic, which may lead to dehydration in hot weather or with excess consumption. It is also addictive, and some evidence suggests a genetic link to alcoholism. Long term brain damage from alcoholism occurs by literally shrinking the brain, and the result is a demonstrable reduction in abstract thinking and problem solving abilities (as compared to nonalcoholics).
Liver damage is another major consequence, which progresses through several stages. First is "fatty liver". Alcohol takes priority in the liver, so fatty acids that enter the liver at this time do not get broken down, but instead get stored there, as fat deposits. Think about that the next time you go for a burger after having a few drinks! Fatty liver is reversible. The person can simply use up the stored fatty acids as an energy source when there is no alcohol around to interfere. But keep in mind how difficult fat loss can be.
The next, more serious, stage of liver damage is hepatitis. The liver becomes inflamed and its function is impaired. After this comes cirrhosis, where the liver cells themselves actually die off and are replaced by cartilage. A severe case of cirrhosis shows a liver that is mostly a spiderweb of cartilage, instead of vital liver cells. This feeds a vicious circle, in that the remaining liver cells are taxed more to filter the poison out of the blood, and as they are stressed more and more heavily (even if the alcohol consumption remains at the same level), more die, leaving even fewer, which must work even harder, and so on.
More immediately, though, alcohol has a number of metabolic effects that adversely affect bodybuilders and other athletes. Aside from fat in the liver, it can add to overall bodyfat for a number of reasons. First, it is highly caloric in itself, and is often consumed to excess. Second, it is often mixed with soft drinks and fruit juices which are filled with simple sugars. Alcohol, as a depressant, may also slow the rate at which the body burns fuel, making it harder to use up all these surplus calories. And a huge insulin spike from a lot of sweet mixers or sugars in beer and wine does not help much. Beyond this, alcohol has a substitution effect. A person who consumes a lot of alcohol calories will later have little desire to eat, although the body is running very low on glucose. Simultaneously alcohol also hampers the conversion of amino acids into glucose, AND certain protein synthesis. So there is little glucose in the system, and no carbs or protein coming in because the person is not feeling hungry. Alcohol also breaks testosterone down, and converts androgens into estrogens! Doesn't bode very well for gaining muscle or losing bodyfat, does it? Put it all together and it's an awful mess. No wonder you feel so bad the next morning.
Beer 150 calories per 12 ounces.
"Light" beers 70-140 per 12 ounces.
Liquor -80 Proof 97 calories 1.5 ounces
Liquor -100 Proof 124 calories 1.5 ounces
Mixers can add 60-80 additional calories per 6 ounces.
Aspirin is a common over-the-counter pain reliever and remedy. Chemically, aspirin is acetylsalicyclic acid, an NSAID (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug). There are many NSAIDs, some others also used as pain relievers, though aspirin is the best known. Though scientists do not know for sure, they believe that the NSAIDs probably all work in similar ways. Aspirin works by blocking the formation of certain prostaglandins.
Prostaglandins are water-soluble, polyunsaturated fatty acids with hormone-like actions in the body. The body converts some of the Essential Fatty Acid (EFA) linoleic acid into arachnoidic acid, and arachnoidic acid is the precursor to prostaglandins. Very biologically active but also very short-lived, these compounds are produced where needed in the body, do their job, then are destroyed either on site or in lungs or kidneys. Prostaglandins are produced in very small amounts, but by every cell in the body (except red blood cells). Likewise, every cell also has the ability to destroy prostaglandins.
What do prostaglandins do in the body?
Many of these effects are mediated by cAMP and cGMP. Related compounds called thromboxanes and eicosanoids are similar metabolic byproducts of arachnoidic acid.
When the body suffers a trauma, the normal tissue is disrupted and apparently prostaglandins are released as a clean-up crew. Inflammation follows, which may aggravate sensations of pain. Aspirin stops or at least slows the entry of more prostaglandins into the area, so the feeling of pain lessens.
So what does aspirin do? It reduces risk of heart attack and blood clots by working to block platelet aggregation. Aspirin prevents the formation of a precursor to prostaglandins and thromboxanes by literally jamming the enzyme which makes them. The raw materials cannot be converted into prostaglandins and thromboxanes.
Omega 3 fatty acids have similar effects. Some famous studies on Eskimos show that dietary omega-3 fatty acids (from fish) are directly correlated with a lower incidence of heart disease, longer bleeding time and less platelet adhesion.
Aspirin relieves headaches and hypertension in the same way, by preventing the formation of prostaglandins which work to constrict blood vessels. In other words, the blood vessels remain dilated, and plenty of blood can flow to and from tissue in the brain or elsewhere.
Regular use of aspirin may be beneficial, but the body may experience more bleeding due to slower clotting time and lose iron. Iron deficiency may be a concern with high aspirin consumption (but remember that too much iron may pose risks of its own). Also, aspirin seems to increase the rate at which the body loses vitamin C and folic acid. Individuals taking high doses of aspirin need to eat a diet rich in fruits for vitamin C and leafy green vegetables, liver, and beans for folic acid and iron.
Two of the most common other nonprescription pain relievers are acetaminophen and ibuprofen.
Acetaminophen (found in Tylenol among others) works to relieve pain and reduce fever, but differs from aspirin in that it is not an anti-inflammatory. Avoid using it with alcohol. Overdose (consumption above 10-15 grams) runs the risk of liver failure, and so may chronic use. Kidney problems may also occur. Acetaminophen can return a false positive on diabetic glucose tests.
Ibuprofen (found in Motrin) works as a pain reliever and an anti-inflammatory and appears to have a lower level of stomach irritation and bleeding than aspirin. Long term use - even in normal dosages - may have negative effects on kidney functions. No more than 2400 mg (2.4 g) should be consumed in one day (taking doses 3 times a day, six hours apart).
Subject: Re: Anti-inflammatories
From: brenda@vail.al.arizona.edu (Brenda Orr)
Be careful with the use of anti-inflammatory drugs... especially ibuprofen!
I also made the mistake of taking ibuprofen after hard workouts. I was taking
600mg 2x/day (sometimes 3x). Within 4 months I had the painful gift of 7 (yes,
7) ulcers. Tests indicated that the placement and size of them were commonly
seen in patients with a history of prolonged use of ibuprofen. If they must be
used, they should definitely be taken with food to help protect the stomach.
I have since had good results from the use of Cats Claw and Muira Puama
which a few good friends were kind enough to send me.
Brenda
7.5.1) What is it, what does it do?
Gayle O'Connor wrote:
> Here's the question:
>
> What's the difference between a bottle of Ephedra that says it is 375 mg of
> Ephedra and a bottle of Ephedrine that says it is 25 mg Ephedrine HCI?
Ephedra is the common name of a plant. The "bottle of ephedra" is
probably ephedra tea containing 375mg of plant parts. Ephedrine is the
trivial name of a chemical compound, an alkaloid. Ephedrine HCl is the
hydrochloric acid salt of ephedrine. Now forget the last two sentences
-- because any references to "ephedrine", an easily oxidized,
fishy-smelling free base with a melting point of 79 degrees Celsius
actually refer to ephedrine HCl, a nice, happy stable salt which acts as
a bronchodilator and central nervous system stimulant and melts at over 200
degrees Celcius.
> How many Ephedra does it take to make one ephedrine tablet?
Most ma huang or ephedra concoctions I have seen have been standardized
to 6% ephedrine, so I will take that as fact: 375mg ephedra are equivalent
to 22.5mg ephedrine, or nearly one 25mg tablet.
> Why can someone in California still find ephedra on the shelves of the health
>food stores, but ephedrine is getting more difficult, if not impossible
>to locate?
Politics. Ephedrine is supposedly a precursor to an easily manufactured form of
speed called CAT, so the idea is, get rid of the ephedrine, get rid of the CAT.
> What's the difference?
Ephedra has plant parts in it.
> Finally, what about the liquid from of ephedrine? Bottle
> recommends a couple drops on the tongue.
I don't know what is in the "liquid ephedrine" except that it's not
liquid ephedrine, and that it's probably more expensive dose-for-dose than
ephedra or ephedrine HCl.
Michael A. Burns
7.5.2) How to use it?
Ephedrine is a powerful stimulant in its own right, but gains additional efficacy when used in conjunction with aspirin and caffeine. The so called "CAE stack" is commonly used both as a way to enhance the intensity of workouts and to speed fat burning.
Although ephedrine and pseudo-ephedrine are over-the-counter drugs widely used in many remedies, they are drugs and pose some degree of risk. This section exists to suggest maximum dosage ranges, so that people do not fall into the "some is good so more must be better" mindset.
That said, THERE IS NO ASSURANCE THAT THE AMOUNTS SPECIFIED HERE ARE SAFE for **your** **personal** use. Consult your physician if you have ANY concerns, and do it **before** experimenting with ephedrine or the stack.
The general procedure for the stack is as follows.
The stack itself is 20 to 25 mg of ephedrine, 325 mg of aspirin, and 200 mg of caffeine. In practice this usually works out to be one tablet of each, though some caffeine tablets might be weaker. Generic brands of caffeine tablets may increase the jitteriness effects of the stack.
When starting, take the stack at most ONCE a day before training for five days
or longer. You can skip it on non workout days. After that, if you don't feel
too jittery, you can try taking the stack twice a day: once after breakfast,
and once before working out. Eventually if you feel acclimated and not overly
stressed, you might add a third dose later after training. This would be for a
serious bodyfat loss cycle, and three a day is probably way too much unless you
are a really big guy.
ALWAYS WAIT AT LEAST FOUR HOURS BETWEEN DOSES.
ALWAYS "TAPER" ON AND OFF THE STACK.
Watch out for insomnia, irritability, and depressive moods. Reduce your other caffeine consumption as much as possible.
There is more about how the CAE stack works on the Info page.
NEVER FORGET THAT THIS IS A POWERFUL STIMULANT. Ephedrine is very similar to amphetamines, though of course not as strong. Still, the very real risks include cardiac arrhythmia, hypertension, tremor, and occasionally stroke and even death. It may generate "amphetamine psychosis" in some individuals.
DO NOT EVER TAKE MORE THAN 90 MG IN ONE DAY.
NEVER TAKE MORE THAN 20-25 MG AT ONE TIME.
More is not better. If you feel like you need more doses to get the same effects, it is probably time to stop taking it.
Think carefully if considering whether or not to use the stack. Decide what you want to accomplish. Do you want to use it for a pre-workout boost on days when you're feeling sluggish? Is it part of your cutting up cycle? Have you really fine tuned your workout to the point where it seems like a good choice? Whatever you do, never take it for granted. Always keep in mind its effects, risks, and addictive potential if you do decide to use it.
And if you do take it, LESS OFTEN IS ALWAYS BETTER.
7.5.3) Effects
>>> Can anybody outline the ACTUAL side effects of ephedrine for us
lurkers out here in idiot land......?????<<<
Sure, here goes... but first a little background on its indications and usage.
Indications: Treatment of respiratory diseases (i.e. chronic bronchitis, emphysema, asthma, etc. through bronchodilation). Also it can be used as an alternative treatment of hypotension and shock through increased perfusion when other methods have failed (i.e. fluid boluses, Dopamine, etc.) when given intravenously.
Dosage: Adult PO (by mouth) is 12.5-50 mg bid-qid (twice daily-four times daily), but not to exceed 400 mg/day. I'm not including the IV/IM/SQ dosages due to the lack of need for them.
Side effects/adverse reactions: Dyspnea (difficulty in breathing), palpitations, tachycardia (heart rate above 100), chest pain and dysrhythmias, nausea and vomiting, hypertension, tremors/anxiety, dizziness/confusion, insomnia, headache, hallucinations, and convulsions.
Those with hypersensitivity to sympathomimetics, narrow-angle glaucoma, cardiac disorders, enlarged thyroids, diabetes (mellitus) and enlarged prostates should NOT take this drug. Also, those that take the following types of drugs should not take Ephedrine: halothane, digitalis, guanethidine, hydrocortisone, pentobarital, phenobarbital, secobarbital, and theiopental. These drugs may counteract Ephedrine, may increase its effect, or may be incompatible with them. Check with your local pharmacist if you think you are taking one of these medications and you plan on taking Ephedrine.
The reason that the drug usually works is the increase in the heart rate and metabolic demands when coupled with exercise, thus allowing more calories to be burned. The bronchodilation of the drug will usually prevent any exercise induced asthma (however, if you have this condition, check with your doctor before taking this drug as it may not be beneficial in your case and may be detrimental) and will allow more oxygen to pass through the bronchioles (but not into the aveoli). Hypertension is usually not a marked condition until an overdose is consumed, although those that are sensitive to the drug may have a sudden onset of hypertensive crisis and/or anaphylaxis with pronounced hypotension and airway obstruction.
Hope this helps..
Eric Nix
7.5.4) Other notes
Using the CAE stack may enhance feelings of stress, aggression, and moodiness, especially in conjunction with a low-carbohydrate meal plan. Resting heart rate may rise, and insomnia is possible. Loss of appetite is common.
For workouts, you may have a high level of energy while exercising, but then crash later on. Acclimation to ephedrine occurs. New users often feel like a single dose is very intense, even scary, but after months of (occasional) use, the effects become less pronounced - sometimes even minimal. Even so, no one should ever exceed three doses in a day, spaced four hours apart. When in doubt, take less, not more. Use it less often rather than more often. When getting ripped, add aerobic activity, then modify diet, then let both reach their full results before even considering using the stack.
What is Guaifenesin?
Guaifenesin is a decongestant. Supplement manufacturers have recently added it to ephedrine products, supposedly under pressure from the FDA. Guaifenesin apparently makes it more difficult to process ephedrine into speed in underground labs. It also induces nausea and vomiting at higher doses. In this respect it is sort of a "safety" against overconsumption of ephedrine - take too much and you might throw it back up. Don't count on this, though.
What is Pseudo-Ephedrine?
We're not exactly sure. It is probably an isomer of ephedrine, ie a molecule that shares the same chemical formula but differs a little in its structural configuration.Pseudo-ephedrine is commonly found in over the counter cold and cough remedies like Sudafed. It's likely that it has comparable effects to ephedrine, but it may be a little less powerful.
7.6.1) What is it? How does it work?
Creatine monohydrate is a popular and effective supplement that serves as an energy reserve in muscle cells. The breakdown of ATP (adenosine triphosphate